| 2008-03-26 23:43:06 |
 And just to complete the story,
Just Plain Text:
Advanced Military
The Roman army is famous for being
highly developed and structured.
Auxiliaries (from Latin: ‘auxilia’ meaning
‘supports’ ) formed the standing non-citizen
corps of the Roman army of the Principate
(30 BC - 284 AD), alongside the citizen
legions. Auxiliaries were non-citizens
recruited mostly from the provinces.
At the end of their service the auxiliaries
were granted Roman citizenship.
Agriculture
Full dependency on domestic crops and
animals did not occur until the Bronze Age,
by which time wild resources contributed a
nutritionally insignificant component to
the usual diet.
If the operative definition of agriculture
includes large scale intensive cultivation
of land, mono-cropping, organized
irrigation, and use of a specialized labour
force, the title 'Inventors of Agriculture'
would fall to the Sumerians, starting
5500 BC.
Anatomy
The study of anatomy begins at least as
early as 1600 BC, the date of the ancient
Egyptian 'Edwin Smith' papyrus.
This treatise shows that the heart, its vessels,
liver, spleen, kidneys, uterus and bladder
were recognized. The Papyrus lists 48
traumatic injury cases, each with a
description of the examination, the diagnosis
and treatment. Among the treatments are
closing wounds, preventing and curing
infection, and stopping bleeding.
The Smith Papyrus is in stark contrast with
the often magical modes of healing described
in other Egyptian medical sources, such as
the 'Ebers' papyrus (1550 BC).
Architecture
In many ancient civilizations, architecture
and urbanism reflected either the
supernatural, or the power of the state,
where the Greek and the Romans rather
used civic ideals. The Romans adopted
many ideas from the Greek and even took
it to a higher level.
The earliest known written work on
architecture is the Roman "De architectura"
(23 BC). It covers almost every aspect of
Roman architecture. For example, the use
of vaults and arches together with a sound
knowledge of building materials enabled
them to achieve unprecedented successes
in the construction of imposing structures
for public use. Eventually leading to 'The
Colloseum' (Amphitheatrum Flavium), one
of the greatest works of Roman architecture
and engineering. It was built by the Roman
emperor Vespasian using treasury gained
from the pillage of Jerusalem.
Astronavigation
In early times, astronomy only comprised
the observation and predictions of the
motions of objects visible to the naked eye.
Celestial navigation, also known as
‘astronavigation’, is a position fixing
technique that was devised to help sailors
cross the featureless oceans without having
to rely on dead reckoning to enable them
to strike land.
The image shows a part of the ‘Antikythera
Mechanism’. This mechanism, named after
the Greek island where it was found,
contains several metal wheels and is known
to be the first advanced device used for
astronavigation (150-100 BC).
Technological artifacts of similar complexity
did not appear until a thousand years later,
and therefore the ‘Antikythera Mechanism’
is also seen as the first ‘computer’.
Calendar
A full calendar system has a different
calendar date for every day. Thus the week
cycle is by itself not a full calendar system,
neither is a system to name the days within
a year without a system for identifying the
years.
The ancient civil Egyptian calendar
(4000 BC) had a year that was 365 days
long and was divided into 12 months of 30
days each, plus 5 extra days at the end of
the year. The months were divided into 3
weeks of ten days each.
A highly developed calendar system like
this made it possible to predict the seasons
more accurate and to be more prepared for
drought and cyclones.
Cartography
Cartography from the Greek ‘chartis’ (map)
and ‘graphein’ (write) has been an integral
part of the human story for millennia.
Mapping represented a significant step
forward in the intellectual development of
human beings and it serves as a record of
the advancing knowledge of the human
race.
The oldest known world map is the ‘Imago
Mundi’ of 6th century BC Babylonia. The
map shows Babylon on the Euphrates,
surrounded by a circular landmass showing
Assyria, Armenia and several cities, in turn
surrounded by a ‘bitter river’ (Oceanus).
Anaximander (died 546 BC) is credited with
having created the first map of the world,
which was circular in form and showed the
known lands of the world grouped around
the Aegean Sea at the center. This all was
surrounded by the ocean.
Cloth Making
Spinning has probably been around almost
as long as people have, though weaving was
probably invented much later (6000 BC).
The development of cloth making made it
possible to make sailed ships which
enormously expanded the habitat of
civilizations.
Sails have been made from cloth for all of
recorded history. Typically sails were made
from flax, hemp or cotton in various forms
including canvas.
In 4000 BC the Egyptians made long
narrow boats powered by many oarsmen.
In the next 1000 years, various civilization
started using cotton-made sails to help
their boats go faster and with less work.
These ships had both sails and oarsmen,
and they were large enough to cross the
oceans to be used for travel and trade.
Coinage
Coins were invented in the Kingdom of
Lydia, in what is now western Turkey
(650 - 600 BC).
The first bimetallic currency of pure gold
and silver coins was introduced during the
reign of King Croesus in Sardis
(561 - 547 BC). By this time, coinage had
spread to Greece proper and to the many
Greek colonies spread from the Black Sea
to Sicily and southern Italy (Magna Graecia).
The coins were mostly small disk-shaped
lumps of gold, silver, or bronze, stamped
with a geometric design or symbol to
indicate its city of origin.
As coining techniques improved, the
convention of putting a representation of
the patron deity of the issuing city became
established. Animal symbols such as the
bees (sacred to Artemis) of Ephesus, turtles
of Aegina, or the owl (sacred to Athena) of
Athens were also widely used.
Cultural Ascendancy
‘Cultural Ascendancy’ in general means the
importance of a certain culture over
another.
During the time of Roman Republic
(509 BC - 27BC), and even during the
Roman Empire (27 BC - 1453 AD) the
Greek culture was widely assumed to be
superior.
Even nowadays the ancient Greek
architecture like used in the famous temple
‘Parthenon’ is still widely applied in
several cultures all over the world, and in
many other sciences the ancient Greek
culture can still be found.
Deism
Deism is an early form of religion that
states: "God exists, but does not interfere
in the universe he created. There is no such
thing as the 'supernatural'… just things
humanity may not understand as of yet.
God should be revered, and thanked, but
never petitioned."
Either the Druids or their fore-runners
might have been responsible for building
Stonehenge (3500 BC). They may well
have performed rituals there, and
understood its astronomical meanings and
uses. Therefore the Stonehenge are known
the be one of the oldest deist structures.
Democracy
The word democracy derives from the
ancient Greek ‘Demokratia’ formed from
the roots ‘Demos’ (people) and ‘Kratos’
(power).
The Greek had a highly developed form of
democracy and invented the use of ballots
(506 BC). A ballot is a device used to
record choices made by voters.
Preferential voting, like shown on the image,
is a type of ballot structure in which voters
rank a list or group of candidates in order
of preference.
Each year, the Greeks had a negative
election where voters were asked to cast a
vote for the politician they most wanted to
exile. This system, called ‘ostracism’
prevented possible overthrows of a
government and made sure that democracy
will last.
Diaspora
Initially the term diaspora meant
‘the scattered’ and was used by the ancient
Greeks to refer to citizens of a dominant
city-state. or polis, who emigrated to a
conquered land with the purpose of
colonization, to assimilate the territory into
the empire.
The current meaning started to develop
from this original sense when the Old
Testament was translated into Greek.
The word ‘diaspora’ there being used to
refer to the population of Jews exiled from
Judea in 586 BC by the Babylonians, and
now is used to refer to any people or ethnic
population who are forced or induced to
leave their traditional homelands.
Diplomacy
The ability to practice diplomacy is one of
the defining elements of a state, and
diplomacy has been practiced since the
first city-states were formed millennia ago.
For most of human history diplomats were
sent only for specific negotiations, and
would return immediately after their
mission concluded.
Diplomats were usually relatives of the
ruling family or of very high rank in order
to give them legitimacy when they sought
to negotiate with the other state.
Drama and Poetry
The Greek Philosopher Aristotle (384 BC -
322 BC) taught that poetry could be divided
into three genres: Comedy, Tragedy, and
Epic verse.
The Ancient Greeks turned ritual into
ritual-drama and so the masks that were
famously used in Ancient Greece were
employed to honour, worship and depict
their mythological gods.
The masks were oversized and exaggerated.
They were fitted about the mouth of the
actor, and assisted the actors with projecting
their voices over such a vast amount of
space.
The Greeks brought the making of
theatrical masks to the height of their
development, and in a way, laid the path
for the making of masks within the
theatrical world.
The basic masks developed into a happy
and a sad face and now symbolize only
‘Comedy’ and ‘Tragedy’.
Empiricism
In philosophy generally, empiricism is a
theory of knowledge emphasizing the role
of experience, especially sensory perception,
in the formation of ideas, while discounting
the notion of innate ideas.
Aristotle (384 BC - 322 BC) was one of
Plato's students, but placed much more
value on knowledge gained from the senses,
and would correspondingly better earn the
modern label of empiricist.
Aristotle set the stage for what would
eventually develop into the scientific
method centuries later.
Engineering
Engineering is the discipline of acquiring
and applying scientific and technical
knowledge to the design, analysis, and/or
construction of works for practical
purposes.
From 3000 BC, the pace of development
quickened. After simple tools, came the
development of wedges, wheels and levers,
the use of animals to carry and draw loads
and of fire to work metals, the digging of
irrigation canals, and open-pit mining.
The Greeks made significant contributions.
The Romans did likewise, building
fortifications, roads, aqueducts, water
distribution systems and public buildings
across the territories and cities they
controlled.
Some parts of the ancient city walls of
Rome are still standing.
Enlightenment
Enlightenment is a fundamental
philosophical concept which grew beyond
religion and spirituality and essentially
means being illuminated by acquiring new
wisdom or understanding.
‘The enlightened’ are those who are not
distracted by their thoughts but who stay
focused. Resisting the natural tendency to
be come ‘lost’ in thinking about experience
rather than experiencing the present.
This focus is called ‘awareness of being’.
This idea of enlightenment is well
described by the Greek philosopher Plato
(424 - 348 BC) in his book ‘The Republic’.
Fundamentalism
The term ‘fundamentalism’ is a modern
word for an issue that goes back for ages.
It represents cultures that were antagonistic
and not tolerant of other religions.
Some fundamentalist movements, claim to
be founded upon the same religious
principles as the larger group, but the
fundamentalists more self-consciously
attempt to build an entire approach to
the current world based on strict fidelity to
those principles, to preserve a distinctness
both of doctrine and of life.
Like this in a way fundamentalists avoid
compromised unity and may proclaim
separation.
Law
Roman Law begins with ‘The Law of the
XII Tables’, when it was proposed that the
law should be written down in order to
prevent it from being applied
discriminatively (449 BC).
It became the basis of legal practice in the
Byzantine Empire and later in continental
Europe.
Even nowadays the Roman foundation can
still be recognized in the use of the symbol
of Lady Justice.
Iustitia, the Roman Goddess of Justice is
an allegorical personification of the moral
force that underlies the legal system.
Library
Initially a library was closely linked to a
‘museum’, or research center, that seems to
have focused primarily on editing texts.
The first ones appeared in the 5th century
BC.
Libraries were important for textual
research in the ancient world, since the
same text often existed in several different
versions of varying quality and veracity.
The most important library was the
Egyptian ‘Library of Alexandria’ (300BC).
This library had an indirect cause in the
development of writing parchment.
Because of the critical need at the library,
little papyrus was exported, and thus an
alternate source of copy material became
essential.
Literacy
The traditional definition of literacy is
considered to be the ability to read and
write. In modern contexts, the word refers
to reading and writing at a level adequate
for communication.
The early writing systems were not a
sudden invention, they were rather based
on ancient traditions of symbol systems,
but have many characteristics of writing,
so that they may be described as
proto-writing. (3000BC)
Writing was very important in maintaining
the Egyptian empire, and literacy was
concentrated among an educated elite of
scribes. The history of the alphabet begins
in Ancient Egypt, where cursive hieroglyphs
were used for religious literature on papyrus
and wood.
The Papyrus of Ani is a papyrus manuscript
written in cursive hieroglyphs and
illustrated with color miniatures created in
the 19th dynasty of the New Kingdom of
Ancient Egypt. (2000 BC)
Masonry
The craft of masonry has been there for
millennia. Sun-baked brick is man's oldest
manufactured product.
Through civilization, architects and builders
have chosen masonry for its beauty,
versatility, and durability.
Masonry is resistant to fire, earthquakes,
and sound. Artistic and durable, masonry
structures can withstand the normal wear
and tear of centuries.
A big step in enhancing brick production
occurred 4000 BC. At that time
manufactures began producing brick in
uniform shapes.
Along with the shaping of brick, the move
from sunbaking to firing was another
important change. This improved the
durability of the brick.
Mathematics
From the beginnings of recorded history,
the major disciplines within mathematics
arose out of the need to do calculations
relating quantity, structure, space, and
change. The evolution of mathematics
might be seen as an ever-increasing series
of abstractions.
The Greek Philosopher Pythagoras
(580 BC - 500 BC) and his students
believed that everything was related to
mathematics and that numbers were the
ultimate reality and, through mathematics,
everything could be predicted and measured
in rhythmic patterns or cycles.
Pythagoras is best known for the
Pythagorean theorem which bears his name.
Medicine
The earliest type of medicine in most
cultures was the use of plants (Herbalism)
and animal parts. In the written record, the
study of herbs dates back to 3000 BC to the
Sumerians, who described well-established
medicinal uses for such plants as laurel,
caraway, and thyme.
The Egyptians of 1000 BC are known to
have used garlic, opium, castor oil,
coriander, mint, indigo, and other herbs for
medicine.
A mortar and pestle is a tool used to crush,
grind, and mix substances. The substance
is ground between the pestle and the mortar.
The antiquity of these tools is well
documented in some ancient literature.
Metalworking
The invention of bronze resulted in great
improvement of ancient weaponry.
Bronzing was invented independently in
multiple places.
The earliest known tin bronzes are from
what is now Iran and Iraq and date to the
late 4th millennium BC.
The Late Bronze Age is characterized by
competing powerful kingdoms and their
vassal states (Assyria, Babylonia, Hittites,
Mitanni).
Extensive contacts were made with the
Aegean civilizations (Minoa, Ahhiyawa,
Alashiya) in which the copper trade played
an important role.
The transition into the Iron Age (1200 BC)
was more of a political change rather than
of new developments in metalworking.
Military
Military means ‘organized warfare’ in any
form and has been around for millennia.
The military development of the Thracians
(700BC) was one of the military highlights
in history.
Skilled horsemen, masters of light infantry
fighting in broken terrain, and renowned
for their ferocity, the Thracians were feared
by even the greatest of their contemporaries,
who were eager to employ them as
mercenaries.
After surviving invasions by the Persians,
Greeks, Macedonians and Celts, the
Thracians were finally conquered by Rome
in 46 AD.
Mining
Mining is the extraction of valuable
minerals or other geological materials from
the earth. People have been mining coal
since at least 120.000 years ago.
Since the beginning of civilization people
have used stone, ceramics and later metals
found on or close to the Earth’s surface.
Materials recovered by mining include
amber, bauxite, coal, copper, gold, silver,
gemstones, diamonds, iron, lead, marble,
limestone, obsidian, nickel, phosphate,
oilshale, rock salt, tin, uranium and
molybdenum.
Monarchy
A Monarchy, from the Greek ‘Monos’
(one), and ‘Archon’ (to rule), is a form of
government in which a monarch, usually a
single person, is the head of state.
In most monarchies, the monarch holds
control and their position for life.
Monarchy is one of the oldest forms of
government, with echoes in the leadership
of tribal chiefs. Many monarchs once
claimed to rule by divine right, or at least
by divine grace.
The crown is the most common known
symbol for monarchy. The first crown
appears to have been only a band, in which
one or more horns were set. From the idea
of power contained in the 'horn', even
subordinate rulers seem to have worn a
circlet adorned with a single horn, in token
of their derived authority.
Monotheism
The word monotheism is derived from the
Greek, ‘Monos’ (one) and ‘Theos’ (god).
The Jewish religion is one of the oldest
religions that prescribes the belief in only
one god (2000 BC).
The menorah is one of the oldest symbols
of the Jewish people. It is a seven branched
candelabrum lit by olive oil in the
Tabernacle and the Temple in Jerusalem.
The most important Jewish book, The
Torah, states that God revealed the design
for the menorah to Moses.
In a general sense the heathen are said to be
‘converted’ when they abandon heathenism
and embrace a religion.
Monument
A monument is a statue, building, or other
edifice created to commemorate a person,
an event or is used as an artistic object.
An obelisk is a tall, narrow, four-sided,
tapering monument which ends in a
piramidal top.The needle of stone had the
function of perforating the clouds and
dispersing negative forces that always
threaten to accumulate. It was placed in the
center of large open spaces in the temples.
The earliest temple obelisk still in its
original position is the 68 ft. high red
granite obelisk of Senusret I of the XIIth
Dynasty at Heliopolis in Egypt (1972 -
1928 BC).
The Romans were infatuated with obelisks,
to the extent that there are now more than
twice as many obelisks standing in Rome
as remain in Egypt locations.
Music
The history of music predates the written
word and is tied to the development of each
unique human culture.
Frame drums are one of the most ancient
types of musical instruments. They have a
simple structure with strong spiritual and
entertaining effects.
The earliest written records of musical
expression are to be found in 4000 year old
cuneiform from Ur.
A range of paleolithic sites have yielded
bones in which lateral holes have been
pierced. These are usually considered to be
flutes.
Mysticism
The Greeks gave us the very word for
mysticism. The word means, ‘to shut the
eyes or mouth.’ The closed eyes and
mouth in this context signify secrecy and
silence, and the order not to reveal the
secrets of the initiation and revelation that
one had received.
The roots of Greek mysticism go back to
the 7th century BC. The religion, centered
around the shamanic poet figure of Orpheus
was highly influential in the development
of later Greek mysticism in myth, theory,
and practice.
The Orphic egg symbolizes the belief in the
Greek Orphic religion that the universe
originated from within a silver egg.
It also symbolizes spiritual rebirth.
Mythology
The word mythology literally means ‘the
retelling of myth: stories that a particular
culture believes to be true and that use the
supernatural to interpret natural events.’
The Greek mythology is the most important
and tells about several gods. Opinions vary
on which god was most important. Zeus is
known to be 'The One', though the name of
Poseidon is found more often.
Poseidon, also known as Neptune in Roman
mythology, was the god of the sea, as well
as of horses and, as ‘Earth-shaker’, of
earthquakes.
The myth goes: ‘Poseidon was given a
trident during the war of the titans, and the
gods. After the war the gods devided the
earth among themselves. Zeus took the sky,
Poseidon took the sea, and Hades took the
underworld.’
Naval Warfare
The development of the ram in 800 BC
changed the nature of naval warfare, which
had until that point involved boarding and
hand-to-hand fighting.
A breakthrough in building the perfect ship
for naval warfare was the penteconter, a
38 meter warship with a single row of 25
oars on each side.
The trireme was a development of the
penteconter, and of the bireme, a warship
with two banks of oars. The trireme derives
its name from its three rows of oars on each
side, manned with one man per oar.
Triremes played a vital role in the Persian
Wars (499 - 448 BC). Until the time of the
Persian invasions, the majority of the Greek
navies consisted penteconters and ‘ploia
makrá’ (‘long ships’).
Philosophy
The word ‘Philosophy’ is of Greek origin:
‘philosophía’: a compound of ‘phílos’
(lover, or friend) and ‘sophía’ (wisdom).
Philosophy is the discipline concerned with
questions of how one should live (ethics);
what sorts of things exist and what are their
essential natures (metaphysics); what counts
as genuine knowledge (epistemology); and
what are the correct principles of reasoning
(logic).
The writings of the Greek philosopher
Plato (424 - 348 BC) are often considered
basic texts in philosophy as they defined
the fundamental issues of philosophy for
future generations. These issues and others
were taken up by Aristotle, who studied at
Plato's school, the Academy, and who often
disagreed with what Plato had written.
Politics
Politics consists of ‘social relations
involving authority or power’ and refers to
the regulation of a political unit, and to the
methods and tactics used to formulate and
apply policy.
Politics literally means ‘the things
concerning the polis.’ A polis is a city-state
and also citizenship and body of citizens.
The poleis were not like other primordial
ancient city-states which were ruled by a
king or a small oligarchy, but rather a
political entity ruled by its body of citizens.
While the polis would control territory and
colonies beyond the city itself, the polis
would not simply consist of a geographical
area.
The body of citizens came to be the most
important meaning of the term polis in
ancient Greece.
Pottery
The use of pottery began as early as in
7000 BC. Some examples of pottery
include pottery vases, dishes and vessels
used in cooking and for storing food.
It is believed that the earliest pottery wares
were hand-built and fired in bonfires.
The invention of the potter's wheel in
Mesopotamia sometime between 6000 and
4000 BC revolutionized pottery production.
Specialized potters were then abled to meet
the expanding needs of the world's first
cities.
Provincial Empire
Gaius Julius Caesar (100 BC - 44 BC) was
a Roman military and political leader and
one of the most influential men in world
history. The German word 'Kaiser' and the
Russian 'Czar' are led from his name.
He played a critical role in the
transformation of the Roman Republic into
the Roman Empire. Starting as a soldier
he quickly became the governor of several
Roman Provinces.
His influence was this big that he was the
first living person ever to appear on the
coins of the Roman currency. This way
even more people knew who their leader
was.
Public Works
The aqueducts were important for
supplying water to large cities. Financed by
the state, these aquaducts made larger cities
possible.
Although famously associated with the
Romans, aqueducts were devised much
earlier in what is now Turkey and Indian
subcontinent, where peoples such as the
Egyptians and Harappans built sophisticated
irrigation systems.
Roman-style aqueducts were used as early
as the 7th century BC by the Assyrians.
The Romans set a high standard of
engineering that was not surpassed for more
than a thousand years. No mortar was
needed to build these structures as the
stones fit together so precisely.
Rhetoric
The definition of rhetoric is generally
understood to be ‘the art or technique of
persuasion through the use of oral, visual,
or written language.’
Classical Greek philosophers believed the
skilled use of rhetoric was essential to the
discovery of truths, because it provided the
means of ordering and clarifying arguments.
Rhetoric is said to flourish in open and
democratic societies with rights of free
speech, free assembly, and political
enfranchisement for some portion of the
population.
The earliest mention of oratorical skill
occurs in Homer's Iliad, (8th or 7th century
BC) where heroes like Achilles, Hektor,
and Odysseus were honored for their ability
to advise and exhort their peers and
followers in wise and appropriate action.
Roadbuilding
The Romans were famous for their roads.
These roads were essential for the growth
of the Roman Empire, by enabling them to
move armies, and communicate news.
At its peak, the Roman road system spanned
as much as 85,000 km.
‘The Appian Way’ (Latin: Via Appia)
(312 BC) was the most important ancient
Roman road. It connected Rome to Brindisi,
Apulia in southeast Italy.
A result of the increased traveling was also
the increased spreading of epidemics.
Sculpture
Sculpture is three-dimensional artwork
created by shaping hard or plastic material,
commonly stone, metal or wood. The first
forms of sculpture included bas relief.
Bas relief has existed in all civilizations. It
is most commonly used for the architectural
adornment of building surfaces, both inside
and outside, where the stone is part of the
building, rather than as a free-standing
piece of art to be hung on a wall.
This 40 ton statue was one of a two
flanking the entrance to the throne room of
the Akkadian King Sargon II (2334 -
2279 BC).
A protective spirit known as a lamassu,
is shown as a composite being with he head
of a human, the body and ears of a bull, and
the wings of a bird.
Theocracy
Theocracy is a form of government in
which a God or a deity is recognized as the
supreme civil ruler. The word ‘theocracy’
originates from the Greek ‘Theokratia’,
meaning ‘The rule of God’.
Ancient Egyptian Government was
dominated by a single man, the Pharaoh.
The people believed that the king was
more than a man; that he was a god. This
gave him absolute control over the affairs
of the Empire and its people.
The image shows the mask of Pharaoh
Tutankhamun. (1333 BC – 1322 BC). His
predecessor Akhenhaten can be seen as the
pioneer of a monotheistic religion,
worshipping the god Amun-Ra.
Tutankhamun rejected these ideas, and
restored the theocracy.
Theology
Theology is a term first used by the Greek
philosopher Plato (424 - 348 BC). The
term is compounded from two Greek
words ‘Theos’ (god) and ‘Logos’
(rational utterance).
It has been defined as reasoned discourse
about God or the gods, or more generally
about religion or spirituality.
Though the word ‘theology’ has classical
Greek origins, it was slowly given new
senses when it was taken up in both Greek
and Latin forms by Christian authors.
The term ‘Theologia’ is used in Classical
Greek literature, with the meaning
‘discourse on the gods or cosmology’,
and it can now be used to speak of reasoned
discourse within and about a variety of
different religious traditions.
Trade Empire
The Aegean Bronze Age civilizations
established a far-ranging trade network.
This network imported tin and charcoal to
Cyprus, where copper was mined and
alloyed with the tin to produce bronze.
Bronze objects were then exported far and
wide, and supported the trade.
The Minoan civilization arose on Crete an
flourished from approximately 2700 to
1450 BC. The Minoans were primarily a
mercantile people engaged in overseas
trade. Their culture, shows a high degree of
organization, and is well known for their
trade empire. This trade system can be seen
as an important reason for the increasing
popularity of using bronze in all countries
of the Mediterranean Sea during this era.
Trade Routes
Trade routes are logistical networks
identified as a series of pathways and
stoppages used for the commercial
transport of cargo.
Allowing goods to reach distant markets,
a single trade route contains long distance
arteries which may further be connected to
several smaller networks of commercial
and non-commercial transportation.
One of the vital instruments which
facilitated long distance trade was portage
and the domestication of beasts of burden.
Organized caravans, visible by the 2nd
millennium BC could carry goods across a
large distance as fodder was mostly
available along the way.
The domestication of camels allowed
Arabian nomads to control the long
distance trade in spices and silk from the
Far East to the Arabian Peninsula.
Universal Doctrine
A Universal Doctrine is a code of beliefs
or ‘a body of teachings’, taught principles,
or belief system, that are embraced by a
large group of people, rather than the
different beliefs of several small groups.
The dead sea scrolls (335 BC - 107 BC) are
known to be the only original manuscript
of the hebrew bible. This bible is known to
be the first written ‘book’ of western
religion.
A universal doctrine like this was a
powerful tool to convert infadels that had
little knowlegde of religion.
Urbanism
The word Urbanism is led from the city of
Ur, an ancient city in southern Mesopotamia
(modern Iraq), located near the mouth (at
the time) of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers
on the Persian Gulf and close to Eridu.
The Sumerian name for this city was ‘Urim’.
Around 3000 BC the small farming villages
of the Ubaid culture consolidated into
larger settlements, arising from the need for
large-scale, centralized irrigation works to
survive the dry spell. Ur became one such
center by around 2600 BC.
The location of Ur was favourable for trade,
by both sea and land routes, into Arabia. It
became the largest city in the world from
2030 to 1980 BC. Its population was
approximately 65,000.
Wonder of the World
‘The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World’
is a widely-known list of seven remarkable
manmade constructions of classical antiquity.
The Greek category was not ‘Wonders’ but
‘Theamata’, which translates closer to
‘must-sees’.
The historian Herodotus (484 BC - 425 BC),
and the scholar Callimachus of Cyrene
(305 - 240 BC) at the Museum (library) of
Alexandria, made early lists of ‘seven
wonders’ but their writings have not
survived, except as references.
‘The Great Pyramid of Giza’ (built in 2584 -
2465 BC) is the oldest, biggest and only
surviving ‘wonder of the ancient world’.
Others include ‘The hanging gardens of
Babylon’, ‘The Colossus of Rhodes’ and
‘The statue of Zeus at Olympia’. Most
wonders were eventually destroyed by
earthquakes.
Written Record
When they appear in the archeological
record (5300 BC), the Sumerians had
developed a system of icons inscribed on
clay tablets for keeping temple records.
In this, these were similar to systems for
record-keeping, based on symbolic tokens
of many sorts, developed in many cultures
over the millennia.
The table whose picture is shown here
shows a more sophisticated use of a
numbering system (3500 BC).
These marks, in the beginning, may only
have served to remind the writer of what
he had once already known, however,
another person could also read the record
in the same way.
As civilizations become more complex,
record-keeping of this kind becomes
increasingly important in order to keep
commercial transactions straight.
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WOH CANGHED TEH KYES ON YM KEBYORAD?
Last edited by Flo de Haan on 2008-03-27 21:31:30, edited 1 time in total.
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